Fig. 1

Paternal low-protein (LP) diet modulates birthweight and breast cancer risk in female offspring. Body weight (mean ± SEM) of LP female offspring a at birth and b longitudinally. c Mammary tumor latency (mean ± SEM), d mammary tumor incidence, e mammary tumor multiplicity (mean ± SEM), and f mammary tumor growth (mean ± SEM) in control (Con) and LP female offspring (n = 29–32/group). g Proliferation staining (Ki-67) quantification (percentage/1000 cells) with representative control and LP mammary tumor sections (20× magnification, mean ± SEM, n = 6/group), h morphological quantification (percentage/1000 cells) of apoptotic cells with representative control and LP mammary tumor sections (100× magnification, mean ± SEM, n = 10/group), and i proliferation/apoptosis ratio in control and LP mammary tumors. Significant differences versus the control group were determined as follows: t test (birthweight, tumor multiplicity and latency, cell proliferation, and apoptosis), log-rank test (tumor incidence), and two-way ANOVA (longitudinal bodyweight and tumor growth). *P < 0.05, ****P < 0.0001. Scale bars = 20 μm (g,h)